Thursday, October 31, 2019

Norbert Elias and the History of Manners Assignment

Norbert Elias and the History of Manners - Assignment Example Elias critically examinees the historical norms that have been put in place over time and how these have been received and implemented in several societies. An example is an issue of spitting in public places. Elias (156) argues that the series quotations or norms that involve the issue of spitting has drastically changed since the middle ages in a particular direction, and in among Europeans considered as being the most unpleasant behavior, and has even been viewed as being unhealthy. The process through which these types of manners have been evolving to be accepted by society as Elias elaborates would constitute a process through which civilization has taken place. As described above, civility according to Calhoun is communicating an attitude of mannerism towards others. Elias critical examines how social issues such as cleanliness, spitting, and others that would constitute mannerism, have evolved to amount to a process through which civilization has evolved in society. Largely, E lias utilizes rhetoric to evaluate how mannerism, has evolved over time to form widely embraced social manners. Elias (159 explains that the inclination to spit or even look at the sputum in children or even in a dream and its corresponding suppression can be viewed in the specific comic that overcomes us when such similar things are spoken in the general public. Elias in this presents the idea of the malleability of psychic life. The use of children is significant of how the society is eager to learn on its way to civilization in a process that would amount to psychological development in the formation of attitudes that would later be embraced as the standards of public order. It is in such a process that civilization would be said to amount to psychological maturity, where the society develops codes of behaviors that come to be understood and embraced as signs of respect towards others, which has been explained as the essence of maturity. The formed trends that involve codes and n orms concerning public behavior or how one should have respect to others as a process to civility then led to the psychology regarding the art of observing people. Elias (104) argues that this psychology cannot be taken in the scientific view, but as the ability that stems out of the importance of life at a court that clearly defines the capacities, motives and the limits that other people have. It is through a court process that the gestures, expressions, intentions and other behaviors of people are weighed to critically examine their meanings and to the extent that they contradict with respect to others, public decency.

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

The Struggle For Indigenous Rights In Latin America Research Paper

The Struggle For Indigenous Rights In Latin America - Research Paper Example Racial discrimination and ethnicity have hindered acquisition of well-paying jobs for the indigenous Latin Americans. In this regard, some indigenous residents have migrated to urban areas in the quest for better living standards (Kay 450). Unfortunately, the people who migrate to urban areas secure poorly paying jobs that cannot sustain the basic family needs. Apparently, lack of jobs and poor payment has resulted in poor living conditions for the indigenous people in Latin America. Most indigenous Latin Americans have no access to quality education. In addition, the existing education system does not reflect the cultural needs of the indigenous population. The cultural structure and beliefs face the danger of extinction. In fact, the future generation might not have the privilege to enjoy the rich indigenous culture and religious practices. Access to health facilities and services is a great challenge facing the indigenous people in Latin American (Gracey and King 67). The high poverty levels, ignorance, and discrimination have made access to good healthcare a challenge to the indigenous people. Many indigenous people die, and others fail to perform daily chores due to illnesses since they cannot access medication. Despite the challenges of education and job opportunities, the present condition of indigenous people Latin Americans are better than in the olden days. Posters and Leon 209, migration to the urban areas by some indigenous people can be applauded for opening new settlements in towns and enlightening the local people on economic matters. In addition, some people have been able to acquire quality education and have secured formal employment. The living standards of the indigenous Latin Americans have changed gradually over the years.

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Sexualized Dual Relationships In Therapy Social Work Essay

Sexualized Dual Relationships In Therapy Social Work Essay The main concern as a counselor is creating and managing professional limits, which must always center on the best interests of the client. However, except for behaviors of an illegal nature, ethical concerns can negatively interfere with ones work because there are no straightforward answers. The detrimental effect of sexual intimacies within a professional counseling relationship makes it apparent that it is always inappropriate to have a sexual relationship with a client. In the first part of this paper, a case study of a client who engaged in a sexual relationship with her former psychologist is illustrated. Main ethical concerns, application of specific ethical codes, techniques to address the issue, and an ethical decision-making process are analyzed to resolve the case. In the second part of this paper, an interview is conducted with a clinical psychologist, which highlights the issues relating to ethical standards and practices, transference, multicultural concerns, boundary violations, and supervision. Introduction The structure within which a therapist and client relationship occurs is beneficial for adequate counseling. Healthy limits create a relationship that is proficient, trusting, and demonstrates an environment for competent psychological counseling. Therapists must know that ethical violations can relate to the gray areas between transference and countertransference (Redlich, 1990). Corey, Corey, Callanan, (2011) state that sexual relationships between therapists and clients continue to receive substantial research in the professional literature. Sexual relationships with clients are undoubtedly unethical, and all of the main professional ethics codes have explicit prohibitions against these violations. Furthermore, such relationships are a violation of the law. The power imbalances may continue to sway the client well after the end of the counseling relationship, and professional standards forbid a therapist from engaging in any sexual relationship with a past client in which counsel ing service was provided in the past five years (Bouhoutsos Greenberg, 1999). Therapists must know that any dating relationship is considered a form of inappropriate behavior that could fall within the classification of sexual abuse. The harmful effects of sexual abuse within the professional standards makes it obvious that it is inappropriate to have a sexual relationship with a client. The Dilemma Rachel, a 24-year-old client, comes into her counselors office and states that she feels suicidal because she engaged in a sexual relationship with her former psychologist. Because the assessment and management of a suicidal client is extremely serious, the counselor addresses this issue immediately. As she approaches the suicide assessment, the counselor keeps three things in mind: consult with a colleague for another opinion, document the process, and evaluate the clients risk for harming herself (Corey, Corey, Callanan, 2011). The counselor asks Rachel to sign a no-suicide contract. In the contract, she agrees to avoid harming herself, but if she feels she cannot control herself, she would call 911, or another person who is close to her and she can trust. The counselor also asks her to talk with her family about her feelings. Rachel states that she disclosed to them that she is very depressed and is feeling suicidal. The counselor explains to Rachel at length about dual relationships. Usually when there is an ethical infringement such as a psychologist having a sexual relationship with a client, the relationship begins with a non-sexual relationship (Brown, 2002). Rachel says the relationship began in good faith and as time passed, the boundaries between her and the psychologist began to weaken. The risk of harm occurring to Rachel increased as the psychologist and client became more intimate, and there is a greater power differential just as there exists between men and women in general. The counselor explains about how these professionals may exploit and seduce female clients intentionally for their own satisfactions. Rachel proceeds to tell her counselor about the symptoms and feelings she is experiencing: a sense of guilt; emptiness and isolation; sexual confusion; trust issues; role confusion in therapy; severe depression and acute anxiety; suppressed anger; and cognitive dysfunction involving flashbacks, nightmares, and intrusive thoughts. The counselor concludes that the client is indeed experiencing almost all of the symptoms described as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Main Ethical Concerns A professional counseling relationship, which involves sexual relations, is against the law. Sexual exploitation in a professional counseling relationship is described as, sexual involvement or additional forms of physical relations between a practitioner and a client (Brown, 2002, pg. 79). Situations involving sexual actions between a counselor and client are never acceptable. According to Moustacalis (1998), sexual activity between a client and counselor is always damaging to client well-being, despite of what reason or beliefs the counselor chooses to justify it. However, client consent and compliance to participate in a sexual relationship does not diminish the practitioner of his duties and responsibilities for adhering to ethical standards. Failure to take responsibility for the professional relationship and permitting a sexual relationship to develop is a mistreatment of authority and confidence, which are exclusive and fundamental to the therapist and client relationship. In any professional counseling relationship, there is an innate power inequity. In this case study, the former therapists power arises through the clients belief that the therapist has the proficiency to help with her problems, and the clients confession of personal information, which is usually kept secret. The reality that counseling services cannot be successful unless clients are willing to open up does not change the main power imbalance (Moustacalis, 1998). Therefore, the psychologist has an important responsibility to take action, do no harm, and is ultimately liable for managing boundary issues if violations occur. Ironically, the former therapist in this case failed to maintain appropriate professional ethical standards and caused psychological damage to his client instead of promoting a trusting and healthy professional relationship. Because of the seriousness and complexity of these sexual boundary violations, Rachel currently suffers from suicidal thoughts, depression, an xiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder. The power difference that is in the therapist-client relationship causes Rachel to find it complicated to discuss boundaries or to recognize and defend herself against ethical violations. In addition, clients may at times prompt a sexual relationship and their behavior could promote violations (Marmor, 2000). Application of Specific Ethical Codes Techniques to Address Dilemma According to the 2005 American Counseling Associations (ACA) Code of Ethical Standards, Sexual or romantic counselor-client interactions or relationships with current clients, their romantic partners, or their family members are prohibited (A.5.a). Relating to former clients, Sexual or romantic counselor-client interactions or relationships with former clients, their romantic partners, or their family members are prohibited for a period of 5 years following the last professional contact. Counselors, before engaging in sexual or romantic interactions or relationships with clients, their romantic partners, or client family members after 5 years following the last professional contact, demonstrate forethought and document (in written form) whether the interactions or relationship can be viewed as exploitive in some way and/or whether there is still potential to harm the former client; in cases of potential exploitation and/or harm, the counselor avoids entering such an interaction or re lationship (A.5.b). In this case, Rachels emotional intensity and stress generated due to difficult or conflicted personal relational situations may override her understanding of healthy therapeutic and relational processes. In addition, it suggests clients, such as Rachel, who possess little therapeutic knowledge relating to boundary violations, or with limited understanding of therapy, are particularly vulnerable (Marmor, 2000). The ACA Code of Ethical Standards also states that counselors act to avoid harming their clients (A.4.a). During their sexual relationship, Rachels former practitioner may assume she is responsible in the relationship and can sustain herself emotionally and psychologically. However, not all clients have this ability and look to their therapist for support. Engaging in a dual sexualized relationship is destructive to client welfare and is a dysfunctional means to offer security to a vulnerable client (Robinson, Reid, 2000). Techniques to address this case are complex, yet imperative to consider. First, Rachels former therapist needs to be reported to the state licensing board for ethical complaints of sexual intimacies with a client (Hall, 2001). During this process, Rachel should know that a breach of client confidentiality will occur as a part of the reporting process. Next, Rachel must find a reputable attorney because there is a good possibility that the former therapist may deny the accusation or blame Rachel by saying she is making false claims. The former therapist could be the subject of a lawsuit. Malpractice is a serious legal concept involving the failure of a professional to provide the level of services or to implement the skill that is normally expected of other professionals (Hall, 2001). He risks having his license taken away or suspended as well as losing his insurance coverage and his credibility as a therapist. This ethical violation could have been avoided if the therapist carefully considered the dynamics of a healthy therapeutic relationship and put the clients needs before his own. Decision-Making Process The ethical decision making process used for the case of Rachel would be to first define the problem. Rachel is in search of counseling because she engaged in an intimate, sexual relationship with her former psychologist. Rachel currently feels guilty and resentful toward her former psychologist and is experiencing suicidal thoughts. The next vital step in ethical decision making is evaluating moral principles (Corey, Corey, Callanan, 2011). In this case, the moral principle that would take priority is non-maleficence. Rachel expressed her need to talk with a counselor and feels she has a limited number of people she can trust. Since the former therapist violated the sense of non-maleficence, it may cause Rachel harm if the current therapist were to defy her trust because Rachel could panic and hurt herself if she feels she has no other option. Rachel must form a trusting relationship with her current counselor, and the counselor must maintain that sense of trust. The next step woul d be to talk with a supervisor or colleague to hear other perspectives or ideas. The fourth step is to make sure as her current therapist, decisions are not influenced by emotions (Corey, Corey, Callanan, 2011). Having emotional awareness can ensure an accurate assessment of the situation. Therefore, encouraging Rachel and building up her sense of self-worth is essential. By creating a plan that includes psychological help along with legal action, Rachel will likely feel as though she has some control when assessing each option. The final step is implementation, and the therapist should help Rachel follow through with her plan. Interview Dr. Jennifer Lambert is a clinical psychologist and received her Psy.D from the University of Illinois. During the 45-minute interview, she provided thoughtful insight into the issues relating to ethical standards and practices, transference, multicultural concerns, boundary violations, and supervision. First, making ethical decisions involves developing an acceptance for dealing with gray areas and coping with uncertainty. Even though awareness of the ethical standards of ones profession is significant, this knowledge is not enough. Ethical codes provide direction in assisting one in making the best informed-decisions for the benefit of clients and the practitioner. These standards may differ among agencies, and it is vital that every human service professional becomes aware of the exact policies of the agency. Secondly, Dr. Lambert discussed an example of transference. She is a supervisor for an adolescent mental health clinic and works with many great colleagues. One of her colleagues is an excellent therapist, but often she asks Dr. Lambert for marital advice. She does her best not to sway her colleague because Dr. Lambert knows the harm it could cause to their relationship. Instead, she encourages her colleague to inspect her own beliefs and values without imposing or giving direct advice. This story is an example of colleague transference and possible dependency if Dr. Lambert is not cautious when discussing these issues. Next, Dr. Lambert spoke about multicultural concerns and boundary violations in therapy. As a therapist, it is key to know and appreciate ones own cultural background, yet not push values onto clients. To be effective with diverse clients, therapists must accept and celebrate cultural differences and view them as a positive learning experience. By practicing acceptance while being curious, it will bring understanding between cultures and assist in expanding trust in the therapeutic relationship. Maintaining professional and personal boundaries is a necessity in the therapeutic process. If a therapist becomes emotionally over-involved with a client, counselors will likely lose their objectivity and ultimately cannot exercise proper judgment in the helping process. When counseling adolescents, maintaining appropriate boundaries can be complicated. Often, an adolescent sees the therapist as a friend to confide in, but if the young client becomes too dependent, relationship boundaries ma y be crossed. This can also violate boundaries if the therapist does not address the dependency. Lastly, a vital element in the licensing process is supervision. Dr. Lambert believes the role played by the supervisor is important for the appropriate development of the trainee. The supervisee should be open to the ideas and leadership style of the supervisor. Above all, supervision was developed to help future therapists enhance their competency and during this process, the trainee will learn the necessary skills that will assist them in their entire professional career. One challenge to supervision is the continuous shortage of qualified professionals and the incapability to supply sufficient hours for proper competency development. When choosing a supervisor, an individual with a good moral and ethical approach is an area of concern. This factor would assist in developing a proper personal approach, and a supervisor must teach by example the importance of understanding transference/counter-transference, diversity, and rapport. Supervision is a support system, which gives the op portunity to present challenges that one may not be prepared to deal with when they occur. Summary Ethical decision making in the counseling field is a continuing assessment with no simple answers. In order to encourage the well-being of clients, counselors must always balance the professional ethical codes with their own life experiences and personal values to make critical decisions about how to assist their clients successfully (Redlich, 1990). Therefore, understanding the ethical codes and the effect of inadequate counseling practices are helpful for counselors as they maintain therapeutic relationships with clients. Nonetheless, even though professional codes of ethics offer guidelines for how counselors should act with clients, they do not give complete answers for how counselors must act in every circumstance. Ideally, counselors should integrate their knowledge of professional ethics with good judgment to facilitate the best interests of their clients. It is imperative for counselors to create personal and professional boundaries with their clients in order to avoid proble ms such as unethical counseling, favoritism, exploitation, harm, etc (Corey, Corey, Callanan, 2011). Counselors must treat all clients respectfully, compassionately, and responsibly, while not compromising the professional relationship established with them.

Friday, October 25, 2019

Bulimic Behaviors Among wrestlers Essay -- Health Weight Loss Sports P

Bulimic Behaviors Among wrestlers The sport of wrestling places demands for- a slim, lean body build. Wrestlers are known for their extreme weight cutting practices in order to obtain this lean build. By "cutting" to a lower weight class, the wrestler is believed to gain an advantage against a smaller opponent. Used by wrestlers preparing to weigh in for competition, weight-cutting practices typically include fluid restriction (dehydration), caloric restriction, fasting, and increased exercise. More extreme methods employ saunas, rubber or plastic workout suits, vomiting, and drugs such as diuretics and laxatives. Weekly weight fluctuations frequently exceeding 2.5 kg occur during the 24 to 48 hours preceding the match and are often repeated 15 time in a season (Oppliger, 1993). Between the weigh-in and the competition, usually -five hours, the wrestler further engages in binge eating in an attempt to rehydrate. Weight-cutting and binge eating are not restricted to international or collegiate competition,.but are also practiced by young high school wrestlers who are still maturing. A growing concern among clinicians and researchers is what influence these weight-cutting and binging behaviors have on the potential for developing eating disorders. Weight-Cutting Methods and Their Prevalence In a study conducted by Steen & McKinney (1986), data was collected from forty-two college wrestlers representing two separate teams via diet recall, a food record, a written test, interviews/questionnaires, and anthropometry. The purpose of this study was to assess the nutritional and weight-control practices of these wrestlers before, during, and after the wrestling season. Each wrestler was asked what me... ...the committees must also be changed in order for the problem to be more effectively solved. References Oppliger, Robert A., Harms, R.D., Herrmann, D.E., Streich, C.M., & Clark, R.R. (1995). The Wisconsin wrestling minimum weight project; a model for weight control among high school wrestlers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1220-1224. Oppliger, Robert A., Landry, G.L., Foster, S.W.,, & Lambrecht, A.C. (i993). Bulimic Behaviors Among Interscholastic Wrestlers: A Statewide Survey. Pediatrics, 91, 826-831. Rarikin, Janet W., Ocel, J.V., & Craft, L.L. Effect of weight lss and refeding diet composition on anaerobic performance in wrestlers. Medicine and Science in sports and Exercise, 28, 1292-1299. Steen, Suzanne & McKinney, Shortie. Nutrition assessment of college wrestlers. Physician and Sportsmedicine 14, 100-116.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Trojan Horse

Over the last twenty years, a technological revolution has occurred as computers are now an essential element of today's society. Large computers are used to track reservations for the airline industry, process billions of dollars for banks, manufacture products for industry, and conduct major transactions for businesses because more and more people now have computers at home and at the office. People commit computer crimes because of society's declining ethical standards more than any economic need. According to experts, gender is the only bias. The profile of today's non-professional thieves crosses all races, age groups and economic strata. Computer criminals tend to be relatively honest and in a position of trust: few would do anything to harm another human, and most do not consider their crime to be truly dishonest. Most are males: women have tended to be accomplices, though of late they are becoming more aggressive. Computer Criminals tend to usually be â€Å"between the ages of 14-30, they are usually bright, eager, highly motivated, adventuresome, and willing to accept technical challenges. (Shannon, 16:2) â€Å"It is tempting to liken computer criminals to other criminals, ascribing characteristics somehow different from ‘normal' individuals, but that is not the case. â€Å"(Sharp, 18:3) It is believed that the computer criminal â€Å"often marches to the same drum as the potential victim but follows and unanticipated path. â€Å"(Blumenthal, 1:2) There is no actual profile of a computer criminal because they range from young teens to elders, from black to white, from short to tall. Definitions of computer crime has changed over the years as the users and misusers of computers have expanded into new areas. â€Å"When computers were first introduced into businesses, computer crime was defined simply as a form of white-collar crime committed inside a computer system. â€Å"(2600:Summer 92,p. 13) Some new terms have been added to the computer criminal vocabulary. â€Å"Trojan Horse is a hidden code put into a computer program. Logic bombs are implanted so that the perpetrator doesn't have to physically present himself or herself. † (Phrack 12,p. 3) Another form of a hidden code is â€Å"salamis. † It came from the big salami loaves sold in delis years ago. Often people would take small portions of bites that were taken out of them and then they were secretly returned to the shelves in the hopes that no one would notice them missing. (Phrack 12,p. 44) Congress has been reacting to the outbreak of computer crimes. â€Å"The U. S. House of Judiciary Committee approved a bipartisan computer crime bill that was expanded to make it a federal crime to hack into credit and other data bases protected by federal privacy statutes. (Markoff, B 13:1) This bill is generally creating several categories of federal misdemeanor felonies for unauthorized access to computers to obtain money, goods or services or classified information. This also applies to computers used by the federal government or used in interstate of foreign commerce which would cover any system accessed by interstate telecommunication systems. â€Å"Computer crime often requires more sophistications than people realize it. â€Å"(Sullivan, 40:4) Many U. S. businesses have ended up in bankruptcy court unaware that they have been victimized by disgruntled employees. American businesses wishes that the computer security nightmare would vanish like a fairy tale. Information processing has grown into a gigantic industry. â€Å"It accounted for $33 billion in services in 1983, and in 1988 it was accounted to be $88 billion. † (Blumenthal, B 1:2) All this information is vulnerable to greedy employees, nosy-teenagers and general carelessness, yet no one knows whether the sea of computer crimes is â€Å"only as big as the Gulf of Mexico or as huge as the North Atlantic. † (Blumenthal,B 1:2) Vulnerability is likely to increase in the future. And by the turn of the century, â€Å"nearly all of the software to run computers will be bought from vendors rather than developed in houses, standardized software will make theft easier. † (Carley, A 1:1) A two-year secret service investigation code-named Operation Sun-Devil, targeted companies all over the United States and led to numerous seizures. Critics of Operation Sun-Devil claim that the Secret Service and the FBI, which have almost a similar operation, have conducted unreasonable search and seizures, they disrupted the lives and livelihoods of many people, and generally conducted themselves in an unconstitutional manner. My whole life changed because of that operation. They charged me and I had to take them to court. I have to thank 2600 and Emmanuel Goldstein for publishing my story. I owe a lot to the fellow hackers and fellow hackers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for coming up with the blunt of the legal fees so we could fight for our rights. † (Interview with Steve Jackson, fellow hacker, who was charged in operation Sun Devil) The case of Steve Jackson Games vs. Secret Service has yet to come to a verdict yet but should very soon. The secret service seized all of Steve Jackson's computer materials which he made a living on. They charged that he made games that published information on how to commit computer crimes. He was being charged with running a underground hack system. â€Å"I told them it was only a game and that I was angry and that was the way that I tell a story. I never thought Hacker [Steve Jackson's game] would cause such a problem. My biggest problem was that they seized the BBS (Bulletin Board System) and because of that I had to make drastic cuts, so we laid of eight people out of 18. If the Secret Service had just come with a subpoena we could have showed or copied every file in the building for them. (Steve Jackson Interview) Computer professionals are grappling not only with issues of free speech and civil liberties, but also with how to educate the public and the media to the difference between on-line computer experimenters. They also point out that, while the computer networks and the results are a new kind of crime, they are protected by the same laws and freedom of any real world domain. â€Å"A 14-year old boy connects his home computer to a television line, and taps into the computer at his neighborhood bank and regularly transfers money into his personnel account. â€Å"(2600:Spring 93,p. 9) On paper and on screens a popular new mythology is growing quickly in which computer criminals are the ‘Butch Cassidys' of the electronic age. â€Å"These true tales of computer capers are far from being futuristic fantasies. â€Å"(2600:Spring 93:p. 19) They are inspired by scores of real life cases. Computer crimes are not just crimes against the computer, but it is also against the theft of money, information, software, benefits and welfare and many more. â€Å"With the average damage from a computer crime amounting to about $. 5 million, sophisticated computer crimes can rock the industry. (Phrack 25,p. 6) Computer crimes can take on many forms. Swindling or stealing of money is one of the most common computer crime. An example of this kind of crime is the Well Fargo Bank that discovered an employee was using the banks computer to embezzle $21. 3 million, it is the largest U. S. electronic bank fraud on record. (Phrack 23,p. 46) Credit Card scams are also a type of computer crime. This is one that fears many people and for good reasons. A fellow computer hacker that goes by the handle of Raven is someone who uses his computer to access credit data bases. In a talk that I had with him he tried to explain what he did and how he did it. He is a very intelligent person because he gained illegal access to a credit data base and obtained the credit history of local residents. He then allegedly uses the residents names and credit information to apply for 24 Mastercards and Visa cards. He used the cards to issue himself at least 40,000 in cash from a number of automatic teller machines. He was caught once but was only withdrawing $200 and in was a minor larceny and they couldn't prove that he was the one who did the other ones so he was put on probation. I was 17 and I needed money and the people in the underground taught me many things. I would not go back and not do what I did but I would try not to get caught next time. I am the leader of HTH (High Tech Hoods) and we are currently devising other ways to make money. If it weren't for my computer my life would be nothing like it is today. â€Å"(Interview w/Raven) â€Å"Finally, one of the thefts involving the computer is the theft of computer time. Most of us don't realize this as a crime, but the congress consider this as a crime. â€Å"(Ball,V85) Everyday people are urged to use the computer but sometimes the use becomes excessive or improper or both. For example, at most colleges computer time is thought of as free-good students and faculty often computerizes mailing lists for their churches or fraternity organizations which might be written off as good public relations. But, use of the computers for private consulting projects without payment of the university is clearly improper. In business it is the similar. Management often looks the other way when employees play computer games or generate a Snoopy calendar. But, if this becomes excessive the employees is stealing work time. And computers can only process only so many tasks at once. Although considered less severe than other computer crimes such activities can represent a major business loss. â€Å"While most attention is currently being given to the criminal aspects of computer abuses, it is likely that civil action will have an equally important effect on long term security problems. â€Å"(Alexander, V119) The issue of computer crimes draw attention to the civil or liability aspects in computing environments. In the future there may tend to be more individual and class action suits. Computer crimes are fast and growing because the evolution of technology is fast, but the evolution of law is slow. While a variety of states have passed legislation relating to computer crime, the situation is a national problem that requires a national solution. Controls can be instituted within industries to prevent such crimes. Protection measures such as hardware identification, access controls software and disconnecting critical bank applications should be devised. However, computers don't commit crimes; people do. The perpetrator's best advantage is ignorance on the part of those protecting the system. Proper internal controls reduce the opportunity for fraud.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Identify and fully describe the main developments Essay

1. Identify and fully describe the main developments of Operating Systems, giving examples of their origins and use. Batch Operating Systems were an early operating system available, and were first introduced in the mid 50’s. They were designed to make human manual work easier; humans were replicating identical jobs over and over again, hence in batch. A batch operating system keeps itself eventful; it does this by taking jobs from a batch queue, instead of waiting for people to submit jobs. The jobs are then processed one or more at a time under control of the operating system, however most jobs undertaken in this operating system would be single-task. These type of operating system were often left to work overnight, mainly because the jobs were ‘batched’ the next job in the queue would be commenced as soon as the previous job had been completed, this way of processing would allow for a large work load to be automatically completed without the requirement to wait and tell the computer to do the next job. Real Time Operating Systems (RTOS) are often embedded, meaning a integral part of a system inside another device. They have very little user interface capability. Real time operating systems like their name implies, respond to an input immediately. â€Å"Real time operating systems are capable of processing data so quickly that the results are available to influence the activity currently taking place. † [Computer Science 5th Edition, CS French, Ashford Press Gosport, 1996] Real time operating systems guarantee a certain capability within a specified time constraint; these time constraints are usually very rigid. If the system does not conform to this time limit, the system ultimately fails. They are used for various purposes; a few of these are medical equipment, industrial control systems and car computers. Parallel Systems have more than one processor to carry out a single job. The systems often carry out one single job using the resources of both processors of the machine; however some systems will have a processor dedicated to a single task. These operations work in parallel (side by side) of one another. Distributed Systems act as an illusion to a user. A multiple number of nodes are set up on a network, to allow data access or device sharing. This allows for other users of different machines to access data on another machine on the network. For example at college a student logs on to the machine, the machine seems local to the user, the user observes the system as using its own local drives and devices. However these Drives and devices are setup on a client-server machine but appear to be local to the user. Time Sharing Operating Systems allow multi-tasking, the operating system shares a slice of the processor resources to designated programs and users logged on to the system. For example, it is not unusual for a home user to have a word processing package, internet browser and a multimedia package to be open at the same time. Microsoft Windows is a great example for allowing this. Personal Computer Operating Systems were brought about in the early 70’s. However it wasn’t until the 1980’s that they became popular, and the focus of the operating system changed from the hardware aspect, to that of the user interface (how the user observes the operating system). Personal Computer Systems are simply operating systems that share the processors resources for single user’s tasks. The main concept behind personal computer operating systems is the user interface. The workings are important; however the main principal is that the user is entirely interactive with the system. These are perhaps the most difficult for designers to produce, as a very high level knowledge of user interface design is required. This is to allow users of any level to use the system comfortably. It allows for considerable power for a single user to run high-tech graphics and multimedia packages. These operating systems evolved in to very capable systems, allowing for heavy multi-tasking usage. Examples of Personal Computer operating systems are as follows: Microsoft Windows Linux Apple Macintosh MAC OS 2. Identify and fully describe the main purposes of an operating system. All components of the operating system are required to be covered, to clearly show an understanding of what each component does and how they ‘fit’ into the overall system design. Process Management Process management is a way of tracking processes and managing them in such a way that there is enough processor resources to correctly function. Process is another word for a task that is to be performed by the computer. Along with a process is a set of information about the particular process. The information required to track these processes are stored in a data package called a ‘Process Control Block (PCB). The process control block contains the following information about a process:   An identification number that uniquely identifies the process Owner ID – An identification of the user/device who the process belongs to   Priority – A number to represent its priority to the system   Status – What its current state is. This is 1 of 3 states (Ready, Waiting, Running). Units of Processor Time Used   Resources waiting for – for example paper for the printer.   Link to Another PCB –   Registers – the registers the process has contents in. Process ID 239845 Owner ID Chris. Oliver Priority 25 Status Waiting Units of Processor Time Used 264 Resource waiting for Disks [printer] Link to another PCB Next PCB in wait Queue Registers Contents of registers when process last stopped running An example of a PCB is shown below: this is for a print job A Processes state is diagrammatically shown below, this shows state transition and how it works. A process can be in one of five states; these five states are as follows: State Definition HOLD A process’s state at the beginning, this is when the devices and memory allocation size is decided. READY this state is when the process has been allocated all the resources required and is ready for being operated on by the computer RUNNING This state is when the process is in the CPU WAITING This is when the process stops because of an input or output waiting to be completed. The process is removed from the processor and is allocated this state. It is given this state until the input or output is given the all clear. FINISHED This is when the process has been finished, and all the devices used by the process have been released ready for the next process. Deadlocks Deadlocks occur when a multiple number of processes fight for very little resources available from the processor. For example one process has been granted the allocation of the modem, however is waiting for a text file, but process two has the text file and is waiting for the modem. In this instance each process will not gather the resources required because they have been allocated to another process, this is where a deadlock occurs. Process Management in an operating system has the job to destroy one of the processes to allow for one of the processes to be put in the ‘ready’ queue. Scheduling Scheduling is a method in the operating system that allows processes to enter the ready queue allowing them to then take execution. The strategies used to take these processes and allow them to be ready for execution are as follows:   Process the maximum amount of jobs.   Sharing out processing time equally to users   Providing acceptable response times, this is in the form of not running intensive programs while users are logged on to the system. Keeping devices as busy as possible.   Attempting to gradually freeing up of processes, instead of crashing.   Avoid Deadlocking Scheduling is comprised of three sections: 1 – Long Term Scheduling – this is where processes are batched together, when the resources and space are free the process is then executed. This type of scheduling is used for jobs like heavy overnight print jobs. 2 – Mid-Term Scheduling – this is where a decision is made as to whether the processor is to busy for the amount of processes attempting to use it, the decision can be then fixed by terminating processes. When the system is free again the process can be re-executed. 3 – Short Term Scheduling is a where the next process is selected from the ready queue; it uses algorithms to do this. Shortest burst time – being the time spent running before the process will have to wait before an input or output operation. Shortest remaining time is the processes that have very little time left; this inevitably allows space for another process to execute. Priority scheduling – a control that allow special circumstance processes to execute through the system quickly. Round robin – limits the time a process is allowed to run before it is removed, it is then placed back in the ready queue. Memory Management Memory is an area in which data and instructions are stored. These operations must be managed by an operating system in order for the system to be stable and to run fluently. Memory management within an operating system must ensure that a process has enough memory to run, ensuring it does not go in to another processes slot as this causes corruption. This management is a way of protecting memory from becoming unstable. Memory management is also responsible for using the computers other memory sources effectively, to ensure programs run smoothly and effectively. This is handled by using virtual memory; using the hard disc drive as a temporary memory source for processes and data. This can benefit the user in various ways: – The user is not rigidly restricted to space available. Using a large virtual memory space provides convenience for instances where large programs etc. are required to be stored in memory. – Users are using less physical memory; therefore the system can handle more users on the system. High Speed Cache is a fast memory storage; cache predicts the data that the CPU may need next, it then retrieves it from RAM and places it in to the high speed cache, this speeds up system performance, as cache is a lot faster than RAM is in providing for the processor. The operating systems task is to control an even flow of the processes and decide where they should go practically, moving processes to the best location as the scheduler asks it to do so. This scheduler knows what process is next in line therefore can tell memory it is next and to move it to a suitable location for it to be quickly accessed. Paging Paging is a method used in operating systems to make a program’s memory non-contiguous, in simple terms; allowing a program to be allocated to any memory location available. This is used when a bulk of data is bigger than the memory allocation it has been given; it firstly fills the memory allocation provided, and then stores the rest of the data in any space available in memory. This method of splitting the data is known as ‘Fragmentation’. This decreases system performance. Defragmentation To enhance the performance of the memory of a secondary storage medium, the operating system runs an operation called ‘Defragmentation’. Defragmentation is a process that sorts data in to a contiguous sequence. If a non-contiguous set of data is found, it will be relocated and stored as a whole. The image above is an illustration to show pictorially how a storage device could look in a data structure. As you can see fragmented files are scattered. If this data was attempted to be retrieved it would be slower feedback to the user as the data has been fragmented and would have to be found first. If data is to be found quickly and retrieved without a problem, the diagram below shows how a data structure should pictorially look. The image shows a contiguous data structure, with no fragmented files. This is the idea state for a system to be operated under. File and Disk Management TALK ABOUT HOW MEMORY IS STORED – i. e. CONTIGIOUS – Blocks of data are assigned in a complete row, using this method the files are simple to access. The space must be large enough to store all the data Files may become larger, therefore the space may be too small in the future, then it will need relocating (moved) This then causes fragmentation of the storage device. , NON CONTIGIOUS Files are recognised by operating systems and worked upon by using file extensions. A file consist of two parts, one being the unique name to the user, second being the file extension related to the program that runs that type of file. The operating system recognises exactly which program to open when the file is run. The way that files and data are managed, is critical to the performance of the computer and the security of the data. File management within an operating system provides a logical way for the user to observe there data, instead of having the complication of the physical implementation. Operating systems main job in this area is to ensure that data is stored and relocated correctly, as well as having the responsibility to process files, find space to store them, and to retrieve this data at any time. For example a . PDF file when run will be recognised by the operating system to be open in Adobe Acrobat Reader, providing the program is installed on the computer. An operating system can perform several different tasks towards files, they are as follows: Operation/Task Function Create finding space for it on storage medium, a new record made in directory Write Finds the file from directory and adds data to it. Read Finds the file then puts it in to memory and a read pointer is used to track where the next read place is to take place. In most operating systems however, a write pointer is held at this point, in-case the user intends to write to the file while reading Delete finds the file, then frees all space given to it, this is then erased from the computer Files are a collection of saved information that is stored on a type of storage medium for later retrieval. File attributes are the information related to the file, just like we have information related to ourselves, i. e. telephone number and home address. A files attributes are vital in order for the operating system to create a file structure system, it does this by using the attributes to sort the files in to some kind of order. For computer data files there are a set of minimum attributes related to them, they are as follows: Attribute Name Role Name an identifier to the user, in the form of a string of characters Type the type of file it is, this is important as different operating systems handle different types of files differently. Location Information held about where the file is stored, usually in the form of a path to it. e. g. C:Documents and SettingsChrisAssignment. doc. Size The size of the file (in bytes) e. g. 270kb. Protection Permissions to who can access the file. I. e. Read Only Date when the file was created, modified or accessed. Author the person the file was created and saved by. Directories Directories are a hierarchical way of separating these files; directories simply make it simpler for users to relocate the file at another time. The root is the top directory of a file system; the root is determined by the operating system. The root directory is usually the bootable device on a home computer system. Commonly C: Paths are a list of directories that the operating system goes through to find a run able file. For example: C:windowscdplayer. exe The operating system will go in to the ‘root’ and then in to the directory ‘Windows’ the file named ‘cdplayer. exe’ will then be located and executed. Tree Structure – are of a hierarchical nature, therefore the top level is the root of the directory and every other sub directory from which all other directories stem off. A Backslash is used to separate and indicate directories within directories (sub directories) Directories allow a method for the operating system to easy locate files. Volumes are a fixed amount of storage space allocated on a device. If a hard disc drive has two partitions set up, then it is said to have ‘two’ volumes because it has two separate fixed storage spaces. Formatting a device in turn means to prepare it for read and write access. It does this by wiping all drive information that has been pre-set, it then tests each sector of the disc to ensure they are reliable enough for read and writing in and out of. File Allocation Techniques FAT (File Allocation Table) 32. Located on the storage device, basically holds the relevant information in a table, to find the data on the disk. its security does not measure up to that of NTFS and its filename size constraint is poor to that of NTFS. Searches from top to bottom when looking for a file. Contains the first block of each file on the disk, Requires a tremendous amount of space NTFS (New Technology File System) Used in Windows NT based operating systems Uses a similar table to that of FAT32 to keep track of file locations Looks at directory structure from the side to help speed up the location of files Uses Link Listed Allocation. Linked allocation creates inked lists using disk sectors as nodes. For example, if the sector size is 512 bytes, and it takes a 32 bit number to represent the next block address, then only 508 bytes can be used to store data (the other 4 bytes are used to locate the next file sector). This approach eliminates external fragmentation (since even the smallest block can now be used). Some problems with this approach are that seeking within a file is now difficult. For example, if we’re interested in the last 100 bytes of a 100mb file, we need to traverse all the sectors of the file (follow links) to get to the last 100 bytes. Another major issue is that we need to do a disk seek with every disk sector (unless disk sectors are contiguous). And yet another issue with this is that storing pointers on every disk sector uses up a lot of disk space. UNIX Used I-Nodes – an indexed file allocation method. Its fast for small blocks of data and can accommodate extremely large volumes of data RAM Disk RAM disks are a temporary storage solution, data cannot be permanently saved, and data is lost on any type of system shut off. I. e. system reboots. A Random Access Memory disk is a segment of the main memory that is left for extra storage if required. This is otherwise known as a ‘Virtual Drive’. The main use for this area is that of performing operations to files, this is a better way of performing operations as the rate at which they can be performed on are that much higher than that of a physical drive. Size constraints are a major problem with RAM disks, as they are limited to that only of the RAM contained in the machine. For example in modern home computer systems 256mb of RAM is contained, therefore only 256megabyte of RAM disc can be used. 256mb in today’s computing is very little in comparison to what users require. OS Services – files, copy, delete, rename, view, find, backup Directories – create, rename, list, delete Programming, Open, close, read, write, seek File allocation methods, FAT 32, NTFS, UNIX, Disk caching RAM disk Defragmentation I/O System Management DMA DMA takes control of the system by imitating the processor; it does this to enable itself to transfer data to and from the memory using the system bus. Buffering is required primarily because of the slow nature of I/O Device function. It is a way of smoothing out an I/O operation, Virtual Segmentation – each process is divided in to slices (segments) non-resident Caching and Spooling of Input and output devices Drivers System Components ( CPU, RAM, System Bus, Local Buses, Device Controllers, Control Registers, Devices). IO response System (polling, interrupts, I/O, DMA Kernal Layers, Purpose, Device, Drivers, System calls Device Management Device management controls hardware resources; this includes the control over selection and operation of the devices used for input, output or storage. 2. Select an appropriate type of operating system for the following ICT needs, giving the choice of current operating systems [trade names]: a) Local council office department in charge of the collection, and distribution of council tax. b) A national car-rental agency, whose main computing centre is located in Sheffield, through which all of the daily transactions for the business are conducted. c) An electro-plating circuit board manufactures. d) A travelling company representative, who uses technology to keep in touch with his office. 3. Research and identify the different operating systems currently available for desktop computers. From your research and investigations of these operating systems you must critically evaluate them. This evaluation should clearly demonstrate your understanding of the differences found including and potential disadvantages. Bibliography http://www. cse. lehigh. edu/~glennb/um/book/c10os. htm http://dragon. acadiau. ca/~dbenoit/3713/slides/pdf/Week2. 1_History. pdf http://cne. gmu. edu/itcore/processes/Time. html http://www. netnam. vn/unescocourse/os/35. htm#3. 5. 3%20Virtual%20memory%20concept http://www. cs. aue. auc. dk/~akbar/ospdfiles/wschap7. PDF Books [Computer Science 5th Edition, CS French, Ashford Press Gosport, 1996].